Microbes in Manure

Lisa Durso Author

07/06/2018 Added

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from 2014 Land Application Training

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[00:00:01.360]Hello.
[00:00:02.193]The topic of this presentation is Microbes in Manure.
[00:00:06.170]After a quick introduction
[00:00:07.320]to some of the exciting things going on
[00:00:09.750]with gastrointestinal microbes,
[00:00:12.270]I'm going to spend most of my time today
[00:00:14.460]on a quick overview of two manure microbe issues.
[00:00:19.360]The first is pathogens.
[00:00:21.280]The second is a topic
[00:00:22.340]of growing interest, antibiotic resistance.
[00:00:30.300]First, let me introduce myself.
[00:00:31.930]My name is Lisa Durso.
[00:00:33.540]I'm a microbiologist with the Agricultural Research Service
[00:00:36.970]in Lincoln, Nebraska.
[00:00:39.570]Before Lincoln, I worked at the Meat Animal Research Center
[00:00:42.840]in Clay Center, Nebraska.
[00:00:44.750]That's me in the orange jacket taking a staged picture
[00:00:47.790]collecting some ground deposited samples.
[00:00:51.130]Out at MARC, I worked primarily
[00:00:52.810]on pre-harvest control of E. coli,
[00:00:55.390]and since moving to Lincoln about four years ago,
[00:00:57.760]I work more broadly on microbes in manure,
[00:01:00.490]including pathogens and fecal indicators,
[00:01:03.520]as well as non-pathogens and entire bacterial communities.
[00:01:12.750]Manure starts out as animal feed.
[00:01:15.820]The last step in its journey through the animal
[00:01:19.000]is the lower gastrointestinal tract.
[00:01:21.600]In mammals, that's the large intestine.
[00:01:24.540]This is a rich habitat for bacteria,
[00:01:26.980]and there are a lot of bacteria
[00:01:28.800]that are normal and natural inhabitants
[00:01:31.060]of an animal's gastrointestinal tract.
[00:01:37.520]So what's a lot?
[00:01:38.920]It's a one with 11 zeroes after it.
[00:01:42.160]That's the number of bacteria per gram of feces.
[00:01:51.110]For those of you who prefer the English system over metric,
[00:01:53.670]that's a little over 28 trillion bacteria per ounce.
[00:01:57.590]Historically, the pathogens were the only bacteria
[00:02:00.250]of interest in the lower GIT.
[00:02:02.690]Recently, there's been a lot of interest in the role
[00:02:05.470]that bacteria in our guts play
[00:02:07.200]in overall health, digestion, and well-being.
[00:02:11.160]It's changing somewhat how people think of manure.
[00:02:19.360]So a quick aside on microbes in manure
[00:02:22.000]before it comes out of the animal.
[00:02:24.600]One of the most interesting discoveries of the mid-2000s was
[00:02:28.390]that there's some kinds of bacteria
[00:02:29.870]that are associated with obesity in mice.
[00:02:33.550]Actually, it's a ratio between two different groups
[00:02:36.080]of bacteria that seem to be responsible.
[00:02:38.870]The scientists took mice that had been specifically bred
[00:02:41.790]to have no bacteria.
[00:02:43.530]They inoculated one group with the obese bacteria
[00:02:47.230]and the other group with the lean bacteria.
[00:02:51.120]They got the same access to food and water.
[00:02:53.420]These are sibling mice here.
[00:02:55.110]And as you can see from the photo,
[00:02:56.960]the bacteria in the gut have a big influence on the animal,
[00:03:00.700]so there's a lot of interesting, complex interactions
[00:03:03.300]going on between gastrointestinal bacteria
[00:03:07.290]and their host and also the environment.
[00:03:17.380]But once the feces is excreted by the animal,
[00:03:20.390]the issue again turns to pathogens,
[00:03:23.420]nutrients and pathogens.
[00:03:27.090]This is a photo from a vegetative treatment area
[00:03:29.410]in central Nebraska
[00:03:30.640]where feedlot runoff is being applied
[00:03:32.650]to cool season grasses.
[00:03:34.530]The primary motivation is for nutrient control,
[00:03:37.110]but the system is also effective
[00:03:38.930]for controlling the spread of pathogens into surface waters.
[00:03:49.920]We'll start with pathogens.
[00:03:51.650]These are age-old adversaries.
[00:03:54.570]We study them so that we can defeat them.
[00:03:57.510]But for most microbial pathogens, it's an ongoing battle.
[00:04:06.410]For agricultural animal manures,
[00:04:08.410]we're interested in good manure management
[00:04:10.250]to control diseases that can make animals sick,
[00:04:15.720]as well as diseases that can make humans sick.
[00:04:19.650]If the bacteria starts in an animal
[00:04:21.580]and then makes people sick, it's called zoonotic.
[00:04:25.610]Today I'm going to review the most famous
[00:04:27.780]zoonotic foodborne pathogen associated with animal manures.
[00:04:36.490]That's E. coli O157:H7,
[00:04:40.230]the Michael Jordan of the E. coli pathogen team.
[00:04:44.690]There are other players on this team
[00:04:46.220]that I will mention briefly later,
[00:04:48.490]but the main manure-borne E. coli pathogen
[00:04:51.630]that you hear about all the time
[00:04:53.210]on the news is E. coli O157:H7.
[00:04:59.180]It's a long and cumbersome name.
[00:05:01.860]I commonly lump the whole E. coli pathogen team together
[00:05:06.980]as bad E. coli.
[00:05:09.560]But as manure professionals,
[00:05:11.640]you need more information about these organisms.
[00:05:15.250]And we'll cover a little bit of the nomenclature here.
[00:05:20.660]The E. coli part of the name you already know.
[00:05:24.178]The O157 refers to a specific way
[00:05:27.580]of naming the different kinds of E. coli based on proteins
[00:05:31.950]that cover the outside of the bacteria.
[00:05:35.510]It's the letter O, O for outside, not the number zero.
[00:05:41.250]The first protein they found they named one,
[00:05:44.420]the next one two.
[00:05:46.300]The list today goes on to about 170.
[00:05:49.210]There's a few holes.
[00:05:50.610]So E. coli O157 refers to the E. coli
[00:05:55.370]that's covered by the 157th different kind
[00:06:00.480]of outside protein that they found.
[00:06:04.070]The story with the H7 is similar.
[00:06:07.790]For some reason I haven't been able to figure out,
[00:06:10.140]the H refers to the flagella,
[00:06:12.760]the long whip-like tails of the bacteria.
[00:06:16.400]So E. coli O157:H7
[00:06:20.520]has the seventh different kind of protein on its flagella.
[00:06:24.740]There are all kinds of combinations of these bacteria.
[00:06:27.460]For example, there's E. coli with O157 outside protein
[00:06:31.610]but with the H43 flagella protein.
[00:06:34.830]That combo is not associated with disease.
[00:06:38.170]It's the O157:H7 combo
[00:06:41.560]that has been trouble for us humans.
[00:06:46.740]I say trouble for us humans,
[00:06:48.160]because the organism is a normal, natural part
[00:06:50.880]of the bovine gastrointestinal system.
[00:06:53.620]It does not make the animal sick.
[00:06:56.600]Although it's primarily associated with cattle,
[00:06:58.760]we've also isolated E. coli O157:H7 from swine
[00:07:02.570]and from goats as well.
[00:07:04.430]Goats in petting zoo are a big problem.
[00:07:07.600]The bacteria can survive for long periods of time
[00:07:10.150]in the soil and can also be isolated from aerosols,
[00:07:13.940]like from application via pivots.
[00:07:21.520]There are a lot of different ways to say the same thing.
[00:07:24.260]All the names listed here are equivalent.
[00:07:26.950]So E. coli O157:H7 is the same
[00:07:30.600]as Shiga-toxigenic E. coli O157:H7.
[00:07:35.791]STEC is abbreviation of Shiga-toxigenic E. coli.
[00:07:40.421]STEC O157:H7 is the same thing,
[00:07:42.880]and sometimes it's just called STEC O157.
[00:07:46.900]Especially overseas, they'll use the terminology VTEC
[00:07:51.510]instead of STEC, and that's just another long name
[00:07:56.030]for something that means exactly the same thing.
[00:07:58.600]So if you see any of these,
[00:08:00.270]they're all talking about the same bad E. coli O157:H7.
[00:08:09.790]In addition to STEC O157,
[00:08:12.100]there are six additional E. coli
[00:08:13.227]that have been identified as human pathogens of concern
[00:08:16.990]and that are regulated in meat products
[00:08:19.360]and introduced into the environment via manure.
[00:08:22.610]They are listed here.
[00:08:24.440]These other STEC also cause outbreaks
[00:08:26.960]and can also make people sick.
[00:08:35.900]In addition to being associated with meat,
[00:08:38.250]STEC and other foodborne pathogens like salmonella
[00:08:41.460]are increasingly associated with produce outbreaks.
[00:08:44.910]Animal manures are the main vehicle for zoonotic pathogens
[00:08:48.250]like E. coli, salmonella, and campylobacter.
[00:08:51.530]Manure that's applied to soil can run off
[00:08:53.740]into surface waters.
[00:08:55.340]The bacteria can survive in the soil
[00:08:57.300]to be later deposited onto the surface of the plants
[00:09:00.580]or can actually be physically taken up into the plants.
[00:09:04.240]Aerosolization and fugitive dust are additional ways
[00:09:07.730]that pathogens from manure can travel
[00:09:09.850]and eventually contaminate people.
[00:09:15.640]STEC is transferred via the fecal-oral route
[00:09:18.600]and considered an important foodborne pathogen.
[00:09:21.720]Livestock and their manures are considered a reservoir.
[00:09:26.100]It's estimated that over 62,000 illnesses are caused
[00:09:30.160]by STEC and over 52 deaths each year.
[00:09:33.720]It's also considered an important cause
[00:09:35.770]of acute renal failure in children.
[00:09:39.120]So when you're out there working with this,
[00:09:41.860]even though the odds of getting sick
[00:09:43.670]from direct or indirect contact with manure is small,
[00:09:48.660]the fact that the outcome can be fatal
[00:09:51.220]and that many of those affected most severely are children
[00:09:55.370]means that STEC will continue
[00:09:57.060]to be an important public health threat.
[00:10:06.560]Animal manures are increasingly on the radar
[00:10:09.180]of public health and food safety officials.
[00:10:11.920]It's due mainly to zoonotic pathogens
[00:10:14.800]like E. coli, salmonella, campylobacter.
[00:10:18.960]The other reason that animal manures
[00:10:21.500]and manure management is gaining a higher profile is
[00:10:25.400]because of the issue of veterinary antibiotic use
[00:10:28.107]and its potential to impact human health.
[00:10:34.980]As people working with manure,
[00:10:36.830]this is an issue you need to be aware of.
[00:10:39.930]Regardless of whether or not you agree
[00:10:41.860]with the science or the policy,
[00:10:44.090]the fact is that the regulatory community thinks
[00:10:46.780]this is an important issue.
[00:10:49.220]Since manure is how the feed
[00:10:51.060]from the animal first enters the environment,
[00:10:54.340]manure is a possible point of monitoring
[00:10:56.780]and a possible point of control and remediation.
[00:11:00.800]So the remainder of my talk is going
[00:11:02.860]to be kind of Reader's Digest condensed backgrounder
[00:11:06.800]on antibiotic resistance in ag settings.
[00:11:15.310]Here's a diagram from the CDC outlining
[00:11:18.620]how antibiotic resistance potentially spreads
[00:11:21.540]from ag to humans.
[00:11:24.070]You'll notice that manure or soil are not really highlighted
[00:11:28.340]in this example.
[00:11:29.750]We have animals to food
[00:11:32.150]or fertilizer and water to food.
[00:11:36.560]This perspective that excludes manure
[00:11:39.700]and the environment is starting to change.
[00:11:42.290]There are a number of recent studies
[00:11:43.940]that are catapulting manure into the media spotlight.
[00:11:53.700]When people talk about antibiotic resistance,
[00:11:56.090]there are three main parts of the discussion.
[00:12:00.810]The first part is the drugs themselves,
[00:12:04.200]the medicines and supplements that are given to the animals.
[00:12:14.110]Next are the bugs, the resistant bacteria.
[00:12:25.270]Here's a cartoon that explains a little bit
[00:12:27.110]about how resistance works in bacteria.
[00:12:30.540]So for those of you who can't read the screen,
[00:12:32.550]the big bacteria up front is saying,
[00:12:34.607]"You are the next class of drug-resistant bacteria.
[00:12:38.067]"As humans continue to abuse and overuse antibiotics,
[00:12:41.917]"your ranks will swell.
[00:12:43.747]"So go out there and mutate.
[00:12:46.037]"And remember: that which does not kill us
[00:12:49.407]"makes us stronger."
[00:12:52.620]So while you could argue with the first half
[00:12:56.150]of the commencement speech here,
[00:12:59.070]any use of antibiotics,
[00:13:00.780]regardless of whether it is prudent or un-prudent,
[00:13:04.130]will enrich for antibiotic resistant in bacteria,
[00:13:09.240]the idea it the same.
[00:13:11.460]It's that when antibiotics are used,
[00:13:14.220]they select for resistant bacteria.
[00:13:23.310]The third element that's in this discussion that people mean
[00:13:27.070]when they talk about antibiotic resistance
[00:13:29.910]are the resistance genes.
[00:13:32.850]These are the DNA instructions that code for resistance.
[00:13:37.270]These genes are usually found inside of bacteria,
[00:13:40.880]but they can also be traded like recipe cards
[00:13:44.430]between different bacteria.
[00:13:46.710]And they can also potentially persist in the environment,
[00:13:50.750]even after the host bacteria dies.
[00:13:57.500]One development that's becoming
[00:13:59.410]a frequent topic of discussion,
[00:14:01.070]especially in the environmental engineering community,
[00:14:04.280]is the classification
[00:14:05.650]of the antibiotic resistance genes themselves,
[00:14:10.020]those raw recipes,
[00:14:11.630]the individual pieces of DNA as contaminants.
[00:14:16.740]Methods to measure and track the genes are quick and cheap
[00:14:20.160]compared to measuring and tracking the actual drugs
[00:14:23.170]or trying to isolate the bacteria.
[00:14:26.330]One of the things we're doing in my lab is working
[00:14:28.480]to identify how those three parameters,
[00:14:31.080]the drugs, the bugs, the genes,
[00:14:32.670]how they relate to each other,
[00:14:35.620]what it means when you measure any one of them.
[00:14:41.960]So if we jump right in and take as a given
[00:14:44.850]for the purpose of this talk that we want
[00:14:46.700]to reduce antibiotic resistance in agricultural settings,
[00:14:51.850]the first question that comes to my mind is,
[00:14:53.760]well, what's the target that you wanna set for reduction?
[00:14:58.240]And before you can figure that out,
[00:15:00.410]you need to know what's a normal or natural level
[00:15:03.860]of antibiotic resistance?
[00:15:06.430]Is it zero?
[00:15:09.100]The public perception is that it's zero,
[00:15:12.670]that it's the use of the antibiotics in agriculture
[00:15:16.520]that creates the resistance, but that's not so.
[00:15:21.590]Antibiotic resistance can be naturally occurring.
[00:15:26.160]Using the drugs can enrich that resistance,
[00:15:29.530]but it doesn't create it.
[00:15:32.330]So what do we know about normal and natural levels
[00:15:36.270]of antibiotic resistance?
[00:15:43.320]We know that antibiotic resistance is ancient.
[00:15:52.920]Antibiotic resistance genes,
[00:15:55.000]those recipes of resistance that I talked about,
[00:15:58.230]they've been found in ice samples
[00:16:00.010]from the time of the wooly mammoths.
[00:16:05.270]We know that antibiotic resistance is found
[00:16:08.660]in pristine habitats.
[00:16:11.370]This is a picture of a isolated cave in New Mexico
[00:16:15.060]where people hadn't been for four million years.
[00:16:22.470]They went to this cave
[00:16:23.610]and were able to isolate bacteria
[00:16:25.300]that were highly resistant to antibiotics.
[00:16:27.860]Some strains were resistant
[00:16:29.170]to 14 different commercially available antibiotics,
[00:16:33.070]even though people hadn't been there
[00:16:35.160]for over four million years.
[00:16:41.950]We know that antibiotic resistance bacteria can be found
[00:16:45.380]on organic, antibiotic-free meat.
[00:16:51.270]There are a handful of these consumer,
[00:16:53.630]retail-based surveys out there.
[00:16:55.730]Sometimes they find a difference, sometimes they don't
[00:16:58.350]between convention or organic,
[00:17:00.370]but frequently there's no statistically
[00:17:02.770]significant difference between the products
[00:17:06.620]from conventionally raised
[00:17:08.430]and those from animals raised without antibiotics.
[00:17:19.200]We know that antibiotic resistance is common
[00:17:22.540]in environmental samples.
[00:17:27.280]This is not a surprise for soil scientists,
[00:17:29.660]who know that antibiotics themselves come
[00:17:31.980]from soil bacteria.
[00:17:33.880]This group of scientists collected soil samples
[00:17:36.470]across the globe and found that bacteria
[00:17:39.070]that live in the environment, specifically the soil,
[00:17:42.840]are multidrug-resistant
[00:17:44.640]and that the soil is a large reservoir
[00:17:47.630]of antibiotic resistance that can contribute resistance
[00:17:51.420]to human clinical settings.
[00:17:57.940]We know that antibiotic resistant bacteria are found
[00:18:02.320]in organic farming systems.
[00:18:08.580]Even in the absence of farm use of antibiotics,
[00:18:11.690]antibiotic resistance persists.
[00:18:14.870]The conclusion of these authors,
[00:18:16.330]and I think it's more broadly applicable
[00:18:18.920]to the situation is general,
[00:18:20.310]is that the findings suggest approaches
[00:18:23.670]in addition to prudent antibiotic use will be important
[00:18:27.650]in effectively reducing bacterial populations
[00:18:31.040]and the transfer of resistance from ag to human settings.
[00:18:35.200]For us here today it's important because those approaches,
[00:18:39.530]in addition to prudent antibiotic use,
[00:18:41.720]are most likely to focus almost exclusively
[00:18:44.910]on manure and manure management.
[00:18:51.850]One of the studies in my laboratory looked
[00:18:54.180]at measuring antibiotic resistance
[00:18:56.610]in ungrazed and unmanured prairie soils
[00:19:01.180]to establish a baseline for what kinds
[00:19:03.250]of resistance are present in our Nebraska soils.
[00:19:08.660]We learned a lot from this study,
[00:19:10.400]but the take-home message was
[00:19:12.580]even in ungrazed natural prairie soils,
[00:19:15.680]there are antibiotic resistant bacteria.
[00:19:19.400]So that tells us there are factors
[00:19:21.330]in addition to domestic animal production
[00:19:23.740]and manure application
[00:19:25.730]which influence the presence and persistence
[00:19:28.830]of antibiotic resistant bacteria in Nebraska soils.
[00:19:36.380]In another group of experiments in our lab,
[00:19:38.710]we've examined transport of antibiotic resistant bacteria
[00:19:42.150]in genes using a rainfall simulator experiment.
[00:19:46.200]This project was led by Dr. John Gilley
[00:19:49.190]who's also with the Ag Research Service.
[00:19:51.000]He's an engineer and set up the rainfall simulators.
[00:19:55.230]The boxes that with see with the Xs
[00:19:57.230]at the back of the photo,
[00:19:58.680]they apply precise amounts of simulated rain to the plots.
[00:20:02.750]In this set of study, pig manure was used.
[00:20:05.190]And our collaborators who provided us the manure were also
[00:20:08.040]able to track what kinds of drugs were fed to the animals.
[00:20:11.560]Both bacitracin and tetracycline were fed to the animals.
[00:20:15.540]However, we were only able
[00:20:16.810]to detect tetracycline resistance,
[00:20:19.870]so not all antibiotics behave in the same way.
[00:20:26.920]Here's a slide of some of the places that we looked.
[00:20:32.440]The last set of studies out of my lab
[00:20:34.270]that I'll share with you today looked
[00:20:35.710]at comparing antibiotic resistance genes
[00:20:38.590]in ag and non-ag habitats.
[00:20:43.870]We did the sequencing work out of the cattle feces
[00:20:46.610]and then looked in public databases
[00:20:48.840]to get the sequence data for the rest of the studies
[00:20:52.140]for the other sites that you see listed here.
[00:20:54.570]We looked at some ag samples.
[00:20:56.360]We had cattle, fecal and rumen.
[00:20:58.100]We have some chicken samples, farm soil.
[00:21:00.710]Compared those with some human and human-associated samples,
[00:21:04.100]so human and dog fecal samples,
[00:21:06.630]and then some samples from natural environments,
[00:21:09.510]including some that are considered fairly pristine,
[00:21:12.540]like Antarctic lake and Galapagos and Sargasso Sea.
[00:21:16.270]Most of the environmental samples were marine-based samples
[00:21:20.950]or water-based.
[00:21:24.970]As discussion and research moves forward,
[00:21:27.480]we need to start separating out the drugs
[00:21:29.510]and kinds of resistance that are most relevant
[00:21:31.640]for human health so that we can focus limited resources
[00:21:35.200]where they'll be most effective.
[00:21:41.610]Wherever we look for antibiotic resistance genes,
[00:21:43.840]we find them.
[00:21:45.510]There's a smaller overall number of resistance genes
[00:21:48.770]in the marine settings, such as Sargasso Sea,
[00:21:51.690]compared to human and animal fecal samples and farm soils,
[00:21:55.720]but multiple kinds and classes of antibiotic resistance
[00:21:59.280]have been identified in every sample examined to date.
[00:22:06.470]So that's enough of my work here in Nebraska.
[00:22:09.800]I wanted to share with you today a little bit
[00:22:12.700]about some work that's being done on the national level,
[00:22:16.720]especially work that particularly relates
[00:22:19.380]to what you do as manure applicators.
[00:22:24.470]So there's a study by John Hopkins School of Public Health
[00:22:29.570]that came out this fall.
[00:22:31.120]It's drawing a lot of attention to the role of manures,
[00:22:34.420]specifically land-applied manures,
[00:22:37.680]in the spread of antibiotic resistance
[00:22:40.310]from animals to humans.
[00:22:44.490]This was an epidemiological study
[00:22:46.590]where they collected information
[00:22:48.520]on numbers of people who were sick at the hospital
[00:22:51.630]and then looked at their proximity or distance
[00:22:54.310]to fields where manure had been applied.
[00:22:57.820]The people living close
[00:22:59.090]to the manure-amended fields were more likely
[00:23:01.950]to have methicillin resistant staph aureus,
[00:23:05.360]what they call MRSA.
[00:23:06.900]It's a important human pathogen
[00:23:09.180]that's resistant to an important class of drugs.
[00:23:12.950]The people living close to the manure-amended fields
[00:23:15.430]were more likely to have MRSA
[00:23:17.550]than those who did not live close to the fields.
[00:23:20.610]This study used swine manure.
[00:23:23.250]They did take a small number of microbiological samples,
[00:23:26.940]and it turns out when you read the fine print
[00:23:29.570]that the kind of MRSA that the people had
[00:23:32.040]was not the same type that's associated with swine.
[00:23:36.020]So there was no microbiological link
[00:23:39.150]between the applied swine manure
[00:23:41.750]and the people who were sick,
[00:23:43.800]just that epidemiological information link.
[00:23:47.300]Still, this study is drawing a lot of attention
[00:23:49.850]in the public health community
[00:23:51.530]about the possible risks associated
[00:23:54.440]with land application of animal manures.
[00:24:03.023]Here is another model of how antibiotic use
[00:24:05.590]in animals can potentially impact human health
[00:24:08.920]or potentially be transferred through agroecosystems
[00:24:12.190]to impact human health.
[00:24:14.080]Now, I would argue that some of these arrows
[00:24:16.270]between the animals and the first level
[00:24:19.070]of sources here should be bidirectional.
[00:24:22.680]They have one bidirectional at the bottom,
[00:24:24.310]and I think a couple more should be.
[00:24:26.120]But this gives you a general idea of
[00:24:27.930]how the community is thinking about antibiotic resistance.
[00:24:34.910]In the middle, the transfer to farms and farm workers,
[00:24:38.990]that's an important one.
[00:24:40.240]To date, the only unambiguous microbiologically proven route
[00:24:44.850]by which antibiotic resistance in general
[00:24:47.370]and antibiotic resistant foodborne pathogens
[00:24:49.620]in particular get transmitted to humans
[00:24:52.750]from animals is through people
[00:24:55.400]who have direct contact with manure.
[00:25:09.410]So there are still a lot of questions remaining
[00:25:12.330]about the details of how antibiotic resistance travels
[00:25:17.200]through agroecosystems to impact human health.
[00:25:22.040]The overall framework is in place,
[00:25:24.820]but the specific details of how
[00:25:29.040]and at what rate the resistant bacteria
[00:25:31.917]and the resistance genes get transferred
[00:25:35.110]to potentially impact humans at the clinic
[00:25:39.080]in a real way as opposed to a theoretical way,
[00:25:41.980]those details still remain to be worked out.
[00:25:45.340]Regardless of what the answers to those questions are,
[00:25:48.020]manure is going to continue to be important,
[00:25:51.060]both in the role as a vehicle
[00:25:53.900]for transmitting antibiotic resistance
[00:25:56.540]and also in its historical role as an important vehicle
[00:26:01.140]for transmitting foodborne pathogens.
[00:26:10.650]So that's what I've got for you today.
[00:26:14.767]Please don't hesitate to call me or email me
[00:26:19.270]if you have any questions.
[00:26:20.720]If you're interested in additional presentations
[00:26:24.450]that go more in-depth onto one of these topics,
[00:26:27.040]or if you just have some general questions for yourself
[00:26:29.670]for whatever group you happen to be associated with
[00:26:32.600]about one of these issues,
[00:26:34.530]feel free to give me a call or email,
[00:26:37.520]and I'd be happy to answer any questions I can
[00:26:40.740]or refer you to people who will be able
[00:26:42.610]to answer your questions
[00:26:43.650]if it's something that I'm not familiar with.
[00:26:46.880]So thank you very much.
[00:26:48.640]Goodbye.

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Microbes in Manure

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