Asian Americans Confront U.S. Law & Policy: A Case Study of the Vietnamese Impact on Defining the "Refugee"

U.S. Law and Race Initiative Author

11/25/2024 Added

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Join us for a conversation on Refugees and immigration. Our guest, Dr. Linda Ho Peche, and host, Dr. Donna D. Anderson, will provide an in-depth look at the role Vietnamese migrants played in creating the current status of refugees.

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[00:00:02.670]Good morning. Thank you for joining us today for the second
[00:00:05.730]U.S. Law and Race Initiative webinar in our fall 2024 series.
[00:00:10.150]My name is Emily Binder and I'm a first year PhD student
[00:00:13.190]in history at the University of Nebraska studying American
[00:00:16.129]transnational and digital history.
[00:00:18.550]Launched with support in January of 2023, the
[00:00:21.370]U.S. Law and Race Initiative explores new approaches to
[00:00:24.250]research, teaching, and public engagement with the history
[00:00:27.210]of law, race, and racialization in the United States.
[00:00:30.430]Funded by the Mellon Foundation, the initiative brings
[00:00:33.110]together large university teaching programs, immersive new forms
[00:00:36.490]of digital media content, and community partnership storytelling
[00:00:39.870]to connect Americans to their history in ways that
[00:00:42.390]repair the fractures in our national understanding of
[00:00:45.010]race and racialization.
[00:00:46.450]Dr. Will Thomas, Dr. Jeannette Eileen Jones, and Dr. Katrina
[00:00:50.250]Jagodinsky are the faculty leads on the U.S. Law and Race
[00:00:53.070]Initiative, along with an array of expert partners in the
[00:00:56.290]College of Arts and Sciences and College of Law at UNL.
[00:00:59.470]We are hosting a series of webinars deepening
[00:01:01.450]the national conversation on the legal history of race.
[00:01:04.890]Today, we are excited to host a discussion about Vietnamese immigration and
[00:01:08.650]the creation of refugee status.
[00:01:10.390]We are honored to have with us today Dr. Linda Ho Peche, the
[00:01:13.950]director of the Digital Humanities Project
[00:01:16.610]called Vietnamese in the Diaspora Digital Archive.
[00:01:19.650]Dr. Ho Peche received her PhD from the University of Texas
[00:01:22.510]at Austin in 2013. She's a cultural anthropologist
[00:01:26.210]and recently published her co-edited book, Toward a
[00:01:29.450]Framework for Vietnamese American Studies, History,
[00:01:32.010]Community, and Memory, that seeks to understand the
[00:01:34.190]Vietnamese American diaspora.
[00:01:36.310]Our host, Dr. Donna Doan Anderson, is the Mellon
[00:01:39.310]Research Assistant Professor in the U.S. Law and Race
[00:01:42.070]Initiative. She earned her PhD in History with an
[00:01:45.930]emphasis on Asian American Studies from UC Santa Barbara. Dr.
[00:01:50.170]Anderson's work focuses on sections of land policy and
[00:01:54.390]immigration in rural America. Prior to going to school
[00:01:57.290]for her PhD, Dr. Anderson taught at Lincoln High
[00:01:59.730]and earned her MA from Lincoln's
[00:02:01.430]Nebraska Wesleyan University.
[00:02:03.410]Dr. Ho Peche will lecture for about 30 minutes before Dr.
[00:02:07.190]Anderson leads the Q&A portion. Please feel free
[00:02:09.710]to submit your questions at any time using the chat on Zoom.
[00:02:17.600]Is that my cue?
[00:02:19.040]Yes. Hi.
[00:02:20.320]Hi, everyone. Good morning from Fuller, Houston. I
[00:02:24.480]hope you all are enjoying a good, nice fall
[00:02:27.700]day here. And thank you so much, Dr. Jones, Dr. Thomas, Ann
[00:02:33.020]and Emily for coordinating this.
[00:02:34.920]It's really exciting to be here today. So today we're going
[00:02:39.060]to focus on the ways in which U.S. policy and laws develop
[00:02:42.540]through the ever-changing understandings of race.
[00:02:45.620]And I'm going to share my screen in order to bring to
[00:02:56.440]you a discussion on this topic.
[00:03:00.560]So today we're discussing Asian Americans confronting U.S. law and policy post 1965
[00:03:06.760]and the impact of Vietnamese impact on defining what we consider the refugee.
[00:03:15.880]So this week's focus in this course is on Asian Americans and I'll be
[00:03:21.160]using the lens of the concept of the refugee as it
[00:03:24.540]pertains to Vietnamese Americans.
[00:03:26.700]My background is in cultural anthropology, so
[00:03:29.480]I tend to look at a lot of these topics through the prism of
[00:03:32.440]cultural meaning, which I'll be doing today.
[00:03:36.480]So what we can expect today, I'll do a recap of the
[00:03:42.160]main points of Monday's course lecture and review the objectives for today.
[00:03:48.700]What I really want to do is contextualize how the
[00:03:52.300]U.S. has defined refugee policy as well as the immigrant tropes
[00:03:56.400]that are often used in popular discourse.
[00:04:00.040]And we'll focus on the particular case of Vietnamese migration post-war. Then
[00:04:05.740]we'll come back and take another look at
[00:04:08.400]the immigration tropes that tend to form our
[00:04:13.740]discussions and discourses on refugees.
[00:04:16.060]And we'll conclude and hopefully have a good amount of time for Q&A.
[00:04:22.200]Alrighty, so on Monday, Dr. Anderson's lecture was really interesting and I'd
[00:04:28.040]like to do a recap of what she offered us to think about.
[00:04:32.260]So in the context of all these laws and policies relating to
[00:04:36.440]controlling Asian immigration in the 19th century and then
[00:04:40.540]going into the 20th century, she had us examine
[00:04:43.660]the social construction of race.
[00:04:45.900]Specifically as it impacted the development of
[00:04:48.540]the legal categories of US citizenship and naturalization.
[00:04:53.200]And as you'll remember, we focused on the Supreme
[00:04:56.340]Court's rulings on Ozawa in 1922 and Thind in 1923.
[00:05:02.820]And looked at the ways in which these rulings cemented Indian and
[00:05:08.800]Japanese immigrants as Asiatics in contrast
[00:05:12.420]to whites and illegal concept of whiteness.
[00:05:15.520]And it really shows the ways in which Asians at the time were seen
[00:05:20.700]as permanent aliens whose legal rights, access
[00:05:24.160]to capital and mobility were vastly restricted.
[00:05:28.960]And we also begin to see how Asians themselves
[00:05:31.640]employed markers and identifiers of what constituted whiteness to make
[00:05:36.980]their own claims to citizenship and belonging.
[00:05:40.540]So for me, ultimately, what that lecture did
[00:05:47.520]is have me think about how historical constructions
[00:05:51.080]of race in the U.S. have always been about defining who is
[00:05:55.480]worthy of being an American.
[00:05:58.360]And thus granted naturalization, citizenship
[00:06:02.000]at its core cultural belonging.
[00:06:07.990]These meanings are constantly negotiated and
[00:06:10.890]I think I heard somebody on Monday talk about the way that it's
[00:06:14.930]morally defined and I agree with that.
[00:06:18.150]They're negotiated in courtrooms, in legal policy, as well
[00:06:22.590]as in the popular imagination, this concept of who belongs.
[00:06:27.290]So some objectives for today. I'd like to contextualize
[00:06:32.530]the definition of refugee, both historically and in popular conception.
[00:06:38.010]I want us to examine different Vietnamese migrations and their
[00:06:42.810]impact on U.S. policies.
[00:06:44.830]And then I want to explore the question of how do popular tropes
[00:06:51.010]and legal concepts of the refugee specifically
[00:06:54.550]relate to Asian racialization in the U.S.
[00:06:59.950]And I've talked a little bit about cultural belonging. For any of you
[00:07:05.790]that are interested in issues of cultural citizenship, Aihwa Ong is a great read.
[00:07:14.170]So Vietnamese Americans as refugees became a particular kind
[00:07:20.510]of special immigration case, but still lies within the broader
[00:07:26.790]framework of race and racialization in America.
[00:07:31.810]And thus, let's go back a little bit to sort of contextualize how we get there.
[00:07:40.760]So after years and years of Chinese exclusion, the U.S. in the
[00:07:47.580]40s finds itself an ally with China against Nazi
[00:07:52.080]Germany and Imperial Japan.
[00:07:54.840]As Dr. Anderson discussed on Monday, it became really important
[00:07:58.720]for white Americans to tell the difference between
[00:08:01.100]Chinese and Japanese.
[00:08:04.280]Going in so far as publicizing sort of pseudo scientific
[00:08:09.000]racial details, distinguishing both.
[00:08:15.640]But in the popular imagination, the Chinese
[00:08:17.460]go from being cast as invaders to being allies and friends, seen here in
[00:08:24.340]this propaganda piece by the U.S. government.
[00:08:33.110]So while the U.S. government is condemning the Nazi doctrine of racial
[00:08:38.650]superiority, it is also arguing for the defeat of racism as one
[00:08:44.790]of the reasons for why we fight, seen in this theatrical war
[00:08:49.210]series and propaganda that the State Department put out at the time.
[00:08:56.610]And so what else is going on in U.S. society?
[00:08:59.250]I'll have you think about, that would
[00:09:00.810]problematize this justification?
[00:09:05.720]And... I can't see... Well, I offer that as a question. Perhaps we'll do that
[00:09:10.840]at the end. So we're talking about the recent massive incarceration and
[00:09:17.000]mistreatment of Japanese Americans.
[00:09:19.360]What else is going on during that time? The continued segregation of
[00:09:23.600]Black Americans in the South, fighting Jim Crow
[00:09:27.040]laws, continuing that, the anti-Semitic politics that refuse
[00:09:32.000]refuge to European Jews.
[00:09:36.380]So during that time, 1943 specifically, Congress
[00:09:42.580]votes to repeal the Chinese Exclusion Act.
[00:09:45.400]But then in the next two years, establishes immigration quotas
[00:09:49.260]for different portions of Asia, specifically India and the Philippines.
[00:09:59.150]So continuing post-World War II, this is really
[00:10:04.590]when the definition of refugees beginning to take shape.
[00:10:09.830]The 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights
[00:10:13.090]is the first international agreement on asylum.
[00:10:18.690]And the 1951 United Nations Convention specifically relates to
[00:10:23.930]the status of refugees.
[00:10:26.550]So on the international stage, we are beginning to
[00:10:30.090]think about the displacement of peoples and our responsibilities.
[00:10:38.760]Meanwhile, in the U.S., we continue to address
[00:10:43.960]immigration issues through a very ad hoc system.
[00:10:53.460]In 1945, there's a presidential directive authorized
[00:10:57.080]to expedite the admissions of displaced persons.
[00:11:01.440]It still has to be within the framework of
[00:11:04.540]existing U.S. immigration law.
[00:11:07.620]In 1948, the Displaced Persons Act addresses the seven million displaced
[00:11:13.740]persons in Europe. This is the result of World War II.
[00:11:17.960]This act allowed refugees to enter the U.S., again within the constraints
[00:11:23.700]of the existing quota system.
[00:11:27.320]And also, the law required that admitted displaced persons have to find a place
[00:11:33.600]to live and a job that would not replace a worker
[00:11:36.940]already in the country.
[00:11:41.320]In 1950, other things that are going on, there is the Emergency
[00:11:45.320]Detention Act, which basically allows the feds to detain anyone without due process.
[00:11:52.800]And this is citing internal security emergencies. So what does that remind us
[00:12:00.420]of? You can imagine Asian communities being
[00:12:03.760]very concerned about this kind of legislation.
[00:12:06.620]And of course, there's a fear. There's a fear of the Communist
[00:12:09.740]Party. There's a fear of organized labor, as well as sort of
[00:12:14.500]the foreigner and the enemy within our borders.
[00:12:18.160]And we're still very much worried about the selection of preferable
[00:12:22.160]immigrants at the time.
[00:12:24.720]And so in 1952, the McCarran-Walter Act upholds that national origins quota.
[00:12:32.600]It allows Asians to become citizens, but then contains
[00:12:36.700]no provisions, specifically covering the resettlement of refugees yet.
[00:12:44.500]And in 1953, the U.S. authorized about 200,000 special non-quota
[00:12:51.740]immigrant visas for refugees and escapees, specifically
[00:12:55.380]from communist countries.
[00:12:58.200]So we've had to do a lot of patchwork since there's not an overall
[00:13:02.160]arching legislation on refugees specifically.
[00:13:08.120]And in 1957, there is the Chinese Confession Program.
[00:13:12.900]So this one allows the normalization of
[00:13:17.540]Chinese Americans, which up until this point has been patchwork.
[00:13:22.360]And it's really meant to shut down the paper sun system, so
[00:13:29.260]the system of fraudulent paperwork that allow Chinese Americans
[00:13:34.620]to gain documentation.
[00:13:38.380]But really, it's about not allowing what the
[00:13:42.880]fear is of communist spies entering the country.
[00:13:47.240]So other separate acts, different patchwork
[00:13:51.780]legislation and programs attempt to deal with the
[00:13:55.400]global displacement of peoples globally.
[00:13:59.060]So we have the Hungarian Escapee Program, the Azorean Refugee Act, the Fair
[00:14:05.240]Share Refugee Act to deal with the Armenians, Cuban refugees,
[00:14:11.480]those in Hong Kong.
[00:14:12.340]So this is still kind of a patchwork way to deal with
[00:14:16.180]the displacement of peoples.
[00:14:20.000]It's not until the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 that we really
[00:14:29.000]think about the resettlement of refugees and
[00:14:32.980]this new category of conditional entrance, right?
[00:14:38.340]We're still defining refugee in terms of geography, for example,
[00:14:43.000]from the Middle East or political regime, specifically
[00:14:46.400]from communist countries.
[00:14:48.560]So we're not using sort of this international human
[00:14:51.200]rights language yet.
[00:14:54.800]However, this is one of the most critical immigration acts
[00:14:57.840]that continue to shape the demographics of America for many years.
[00:15:02.900]Very much a result of sort of the civil rights
[00:15:06.460]movements and this move to eliminate race
[00:15:09.440]discrimination in immigration.
[00:15:11.520]It also set up different kinds of system of preferences, family
[00:15:16.180]reunification, the ability to immigrate through employment,
[00:15:21.560]and then, of course, functionally repeals the 1882
[00:15:25.660]Chinese Exclusion Act, finally.
[00:15:31.060]So during this time, enter the model minority myth.
[00:15:39.010]What the Immigration Act of 1965 ostensibly does is
[00:15:44.750]create a sort of identity crisis in the United States.
[00:15:50.290]If you'll remember, there are demands for equality,
[00:15:54.670]economic equity, growing civil rights movements, women's movements,
[00:15:59.290]labor movements, and all of this
[00:16:03.490]sort of coalesce around what Robert Lee, the scholar, talks about the three
[00:16:11.650]major fears at the time and the emergence of this
[00:16:16.250]Model Minority Myth, right?
[00:16:18.610]Despite that there was an active Asian American movement,
[00:16:22.030]Asians were popularly seen as this silent minority, a perceived
[00:16:27.330]sort of acquiescence to the status quo.
[00:16:30.550]When in fact, this passiveness reflected, in my opinion, very justifiable and
[00:16:37.570]very deep fear of trauma from decades of exclusion,
[00:16:43.250]incarceration, and discrimination.
[00:16:46.830]And so these three black fears at the time, what are these?
[00:16:50.270]So he calls them the "black menace of race," right, and miscegenation.
[00:16:55.770]The first and foremost, he claims that the Model Minority is at its core
[00:17:01.530]anti-Black, right? We're talking a time period,
[00:17:05.750]the Watts riots were going on in '64.
[00:17:09.810]There's still all the movements, segregation in the South.
[00:17:15.710]The next one is the white menace of homosexuality, right? In 1953,
[00:17:21.890]Eisenhower issued an executive order banning
[00:17:24.490]gay men and lesbians from federal employment.
[00:17:27.730]So there's this real fear of the degradation of
[00:17:31.490]the typical nuclear family and thus of the nation itself.
[00:17:39.420]And this is related to sort of the morality laws that
[00:17:42.320]come into place in the 19th and early 20th century, which I
[00:17:46.480]won't have time to get into, but this is the sort
[00:17:50.180]of coalescing of what white heteronormative
[00:17:54.060]American identity is at the time.
[00:17:58.660]And last but not least, the red menace of communism. So the
[00:18:04.200]real fear of the Communist Party, of organized labor
[00:18:08.240]movements, and this sort of flips as well our
[00:18:13.840]relationship with China once again.
[00:18:15.540]Communist China now becomes the enemy, and post-World War
[00:18:21.520]II Japan becomes a U.S. partner, right? Specifically in this
[00:18:27.740]Pacific Rim strategy for economic expansion there, and this includes
[00:18:32.920]Southeast Asia, a major source of profit for American investment.
[00:18:39.840]So if you'd like further reading, there's an article by Robert Lee called
[00:18:45.900]"The Cold War Origins of the Model Minority Myth"
[00:18:48.040]that is really interesting.
[00:18:51.060]So we do finally get at least geographically to the origins
[00:18:56.200]of our subject today, right? We're still sort of
[00:19:00.240]contextualizing getting there.
[00:19:04.330]During this time, Southeast Asia became a focus for U.S.
[00:19:08.350]foreign policy, and the reason for the U.S. involvement in the
[00:19:12.430]Southeast Asian conflicts, including Vietnam's
[00:19:15.330]civil wars. The bombing campaigns from '64 to '68 really fueled
[00:19:23.890]an anti-war sentiment in the U.S.
[00:19:39.390]And perhaps guessing at an impending refugee crisis, in
[00:19:47.390]1968, President Jimmy Carter acceded to the 1967 United Nations
[00:19:54.610]Protocol relating to the status of refugees.
[00:19:57.550]So he continues, however, to use his own definition of refugee, which
[00:20:03.210]is very much about outlining it in terms of U.S. immigration policy.
[00:20:12.830]So a great exodus ensues after talks break down in
[00:20:17.370]1973, the U.S. turns over fighting to the South Vietnamese troops,
[00:20:24.530]the U.S. exchanges prisoners with the North, and pieces out. South
[00:20:29.630]Vietnam Falls in April of 1975, and a great exodus ensued.
[00:20:37.250]The first set of displaced peoples consisted
[00:20:42.290]of political leaders, government officials, about 175,000 urban,
[00:20:49.910]middle class South Vietnamese that were relatively skilled,
[00:20:54.690]most knew English, they were urbanized and educated.
[00:21:00.510]First, they fled in Guam in various ways, and
[00:21:06.210]then arrived in the U.S. and settled in temporary
[00:21:09.510]camps in Fort Indiantown Gap in Pennsylvania, as
[00:21:13.690]well as Camp Pendleton in California, among
[00:21:16.530]other resettlement camps.
[00:21:19.270]And during this time, France and Canada also took some, but many nations
[00:21:25.630]felt that this was really an American problem. So
[00:21:34.720]the refugee exodus continuing.
[00:21:39.760]The U.S. government, motivated by popular demand to
[00:21:44.780]take responsibility for a situation created in part
[00:21:48.420]by its own military intervention, developed refugee policies
[00:21:53.020]in recognition of this broad displacement of people.
[00:21:55.720]So we have the 1975 Indochina Migration and Refugee Act.
[00:22:01.560]It allowed approximately 130,000 refugees from Cambodia,
[00:22:06.720]Laos, and South Vietnam to enter the U.S. with special status.
[00:22:11.300]It established a domestic resettlement program
[00:22:13.720]and provided financial assistance and relocation aid.
[00:22:19.080]In 1977, the amendment extended the period of assistance
[00:22:23.220]and allowed for refugees to later become permanent residents.
[00:22:27.980]And so simultaneously, popular representations created this very
[00:22:35.220]morally defined category of the worthy refugee, centered on
[00:22:40.000]the representations of the Vietnamese, often using images
[00:22:44.440]of women and children in calls for government action.
[00:22:48.220]So what are these tropes of the victim? The traumatized
[00:22:53.380]in need of our benevolence, the voiceless in need of a
[00:22:58.360]voice against the evils of communism, and the
[00:23:02.000]worthy, and specifically worthy because of a willingness
[00:23:08.960]to assimilate and carried American values.
[00:23:13.320]Most spoke English and French, and so this was an acceptable group of
[00:23:19.700]refugees. Almost immediately, at least somewhat immediately,
[00:23:29.050]there is a sense of compassion fatigue.
[00:23:32.970]In the post-war back in Vietnam, they faced economic sanctions and
[00:23:42.970]widespread famine, and about 340,000 South Vietnamese were forced
[00:23:49.070]to re-education camps.
[00:23:51.510]And starting in about 1976, about 400,000 people fled the situation
[00:23:58.750]and the political repression.
[00:24:01.270]And these folks ended up escaping by any means.
[00:24:06.010]So by boat to Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia,
[00:24:10.190]Singapore, the Philippines, Hong Kong. The second
[00:24:13.410]large-scale exodus was comprised of folks that were less educated
[00:24:20.490]and had more rural backgrounds.
[00:24:22.930]At this time, trafficking refugees began to be big business, and
[00:24:29.310]compassion fatigue set in across a lot of the South Asian countries.
[00:24:35.670]These self-proclaimed boat people ended up all
[00:24:39.190]across Southeast Asia, and the scope of the exodus intensified.
[00:24:44.590]So we've got 10,000 Lao and Hmong that
[00:24:48.210]became illegal in Thailand.
[00:24:51.390]Thailand started to basically just turn boat people away,
[00:24:56.750]literally turn them away. Malaysia considered boat
[00:24:59.830]people all illegal, and 360,000 Cambodians were
[00:25:05.030]repatriated from Hong Kong.
[00:25:07.010]So the chart on the left shows you the repatriation of
[00:25:14.090]Vietnamese, Cambodians, and Laotians between '75 and '97.
[00:25:18.710]So in response, the 1979 Geneva Conference set up legal
[00:25:23.390]departures to separate political refugees from economic
[00:25:27.810]refugees, to make sense and to create categories
[00:25:33.610]of worthy displaced peoples.
[00:25:37.890]And they came up with the Orderly Departure Program, the ODP,
[00:25:41.090]under the auspices of the United Nations High
[00:25:44.110]Commissioner for Refugees.
[00:25:48.250]So under this program, Southeast Asians agreed to provide
[00:25:51.870]temporary asylum, Vietnam agreed to promote orderly departures, and
[00:25:57.310]Western countries agreed to accelerate resettlement.
[00:26:01.870]By 1980, the U.S. law was finally brought into compliance
[00:26:05.690]with international definitions of refugee, and they began the resettlement process.
[00:26:10.610]But by 1994, the U.S. stopped accepting refugees
[00:26:14.950]from Cambodia, and then from Laos and Vietnam
[00:26:19.070]in '97, and a very different set of representations guided public opinions
[00:26:24.730]about these later migrations.
[00:26:28.850]We've got changing perspectives once again.
[00:26:32.530]So to give you a perspective of the great demographic changes, Vietnamese immigrants
[00:26:39.990]were only identified separately by the Office of Immigration
[00:26:44.050]Statistics in the 50s, when 335 people of Vietnamese
[00:26:51.710]descent were admitted as refugees.
[00:26:54.130]The number had risen to 832,765 by 2003.
[00:27:01.730]In the 10 years of 1980 and 1990, alone, the population grew
[00:27:07.770]142%, and most foreign-born.
[00:27:13.050]So almost immediately, the subsequent migrations
[00:27:16.190]of Vietnamese immigrants faced cultural conflict.
[00:27:19.830]Although sometimes lumped in with the acceptable Asians as model minorities,
[00:27:25.270]but just as often cast as those draining public
[00:27:28.670]resources or unassimilable.
[00:27:34.340]And anti-immigrant sentiment in the 80s was fueled really by a declining
[00:27:38.180]economy and led on the attacks on Chinese, Japanese,
[00:27:42.560]and Vietnamese communities.
[00:27:45.280]So I'd like to return to common immigration tropes, both those
[00:27:53.880]that seem to be positive and those that are more problematic.
[00:28:00.760]So there's this sense of a nation of immigrants,
[00:28:04.540]right? This sort of falseness of
[00:28:07.740]an equitable multiculturalism.
[00:28:10.660]The sense that we're all immigrants, right? This romantic notion,
[00:28:14.640]of course, that ignores colonialism and all kinds of issues.
[00:28:20.380]There's the American dream, right? They're coming for the American dream. But
[00:28:24.800]really, we only mean that for those who are willing to assimilate.
[00:28:30.000]And then this Model Minority Myth comes in that we're looking at
[00:28:35.960]groups pitted against other ethnics, and seen as
[00:28:41.700]self-reliant, passive-obedient kind of minorities, right? That everybody
[00:28:47.560]else is compared to.
[00:28:50.900]There are the metaphor of floods and waves, right?
[00:28:55.300]That threaten to overwhelm American cities. There's
[00:28:58.980]a language of invasion of immigrants taking jobs and taking over.
[00:29:05.760]And then there is this interestingly consuming kinds of
[00:29:10.020]discourses, right? You start being public resources,
[00:29:15.060]literally eating pets. We have this kind of language as well.
[00:29:22.650]And I'm going to end by talking about one
[00:29:27.630]final anecdote, something that happened early on in the
[00:29:31.910]resettlement of Vietnamese communities here, right?
[00:29:35.330]So in 1979, many folks did a second sort of move to places
[00:29:44.050]where they found other Vietnamese communities
[00:29:47.990]or industries that they were familiar with.
[00:29:52.610]And many Vietnamese took up shrimping in Texas. And so
[00:29:58.070]there was a growing anti-Vietnamese sentiment in that industry specifically.
[00:30:04.490]It had to do with sort of cultural understandings
[00:30:08.930]of how close your shrimping boat should be and should
[00:30:11.770]they tap each other on the water.
[00:30:14.290]And anyway, you know, there were these stereotypes that also fueled that
[00:30:20.870]anti-Vietnamese sentiment and a real worry that they were taking over the industry.
[00:30:27.030]And violent confrontations ended up with one white male dead. Eventually,
[00:30:33.530]two of the Vietnamese defendants were acquitted on self-defense at that time.
[00:30:39.530]But the conflicts only grew. In 1981, armed clansmen began
[00:30:45.570]these boat parades. They were openly displaying
[00:30:49.290]weapons. They were hanging effigies of Vietnamese fishermen.
[00:30:53.610]They were burning boats.
[00:30:54.630]And they created a group of secret paramilitary groups called
[00:30:59.170]the Texas Emergency Reserve.
[00:31:02.710]And so in response to this, the Vietnamese Fishermen's Association filed a
[00:31:07.850]class action civil lawsuit.
[00:31:10.170]And this was with the help of the Southern Poverty Law
[00:31:13.250]Center. And lawyers argued that the Klan violated several
[00:31:16.950]civil rights statutes.
[00:31:17.930]The 13 and 14th Amendments, common law torts on assault
[00:31:22.190]and personal property, the Sherman Antitrust Act,
[00:31:26.350]and a little-known Texas law prohibiting the
[00:31:28.970]establishment of private armies.
[00:31:31.830]And they won. And so I think the story is a reminder to take
[00:31:40.260]sort of these popular discourses and tropes
[00:31:42.360]about immigrants and the discourses very seriously, right?
[00:31:49.220]They're just words. They can create an environment
[00:31:52.340]of vitriol and often can have violent consequences.
[00:31:59.740]And something that's promising is really thinking
[00:32:04.920]about the fact that the Southern Poverty Law
[00:32:08.700]Center provides an opportunity to think about intersection
[00:32:14.380]of organizing and what that might look like.
[00:32:20.660]And so to finish, I did want to think about
[00:32:25.920]that first overarching question. So how do popular tropes and legal
[00:32:30.880]concepts of the refugee relate to Asian racialization?
[00:32:38.660]And before we get there, I did want to talk a little bit about what we
[00:32:43.140]didn't get into. I mean, there's so much. I feel like it
[00:32:45.920]was super, super duper fast.
[00:32:50.690]But relates to this topic as well. So I couldn't get into
[00:32:55.030]the morality laws relating to immigrants, right? And
[00:32:57.870]specifically gendered policies that related to Asian and
[00:33:02.950]controlling Asian immigrant women.
[00:33:05.950]And the policing of sexuality. This was, you know, starting the 19th century into
[00:33:12.070]the 20th century, particularly targeting Asian laborers,
[00:33:17.370]right? And this continuing fear of miscegenation.
[00:33:20.910]Very little touched on Asian American activism and social movements,
[00:33:26.950]particularly where they were defending acts of violence and racism.
[00:33:34.750]And then, of course, on a broader level, and
[00:33:37.190]we can talk about this maybe in discussion, but
[00:33:38.830]issues of how Asians have been slotted at different
[00:33:41.950]times in different places on the U.S. racial continuum.
[00:33:45.050]So, you know, continuing that conversation from Monday in terms of where
[00:33:51.590]are Asians more white? Are they more Black? Are they in between?
[00:33:58.710]At some point in time, Filipinos were illustrated and seen as Black. And at some
[00:34:05.570]times, Asians were seen as white, right? As
[00:34:09.830]we saw with some of those legal cases.
[00:34:13.969]So that, I'm going to hand it over. Maybe I'll leave that question up
[00:34:21.909]for us to chat about. And I don't know how to turn this over.
[00:34:32.350]I think I'll just take it from here. Thank you, Dr. Ho Peche. Everyone
[00:34:37.130]give Dr. Ho Peche a round of applause, whether you can do it on your
[00:34:40.929]little emojis or you can turn on your cams.
[00:34:43.690]And that was a really excellent lecture. And I know there's probably
[00:34:46.790]so many questions. But as a moderator, I will just go ahead and
[00:34:51.170]take the first one because I will allow students, if you have
[00:34:54.909]questions, please drop them into the chat. I'll be happy to ask them.
[00:34:59.350]But to give you some time to think about this, right? And
[00:35:02.630]this relates to your last question, too. There
[00:35:05.390]are so many dominant kind of stereotypical figures
[00:35:08.610]in Asian American historical context.
[00:35:12.050]Like on Tuesday, my lecture was talking about the
[00:35:13.990]alien, particularly, and then you're talking about the refugee.
[00:35:18.010]Do you see that? Are these terms connected? And
[00:35:21.630]in what ways? How do you see that connection?
[00:35:24.350]I think that's a really interesting question
[00:35:30.080]of the definition of alien and the definition
[00:35:35.240]of refugee, particularly because, you know, providing
[00:35:41.080]refuge is a very different kind of purpose.
[00:35:46.220]You know, on the one hand, we're creating a
[00:35:48.660]category of alienness, right, who is not part
[00:35:51.700]of the U.S. geographically allowed to be within our
[00:35:55.120]boundaries, but not definitely not part of the American nation.
[00:36:01.400]And the concept of the refugee really comes about at a
[00:36:05.520]point in time, post World War II, where we're really kind of
[00:36:10.680]cementing different kinds of borders after post World War II, and thinking
[00:36:16.880]in terms of our responsibility to welcome different groups
[00:36:23.360]and displaced peoples.
[00:36:25.540]And so, providing refuge and this concept of human rights, you know, it's
[00:36:32.600]very different from thinking about who is alien at a time where we're
[00:36:37.260]creating a national identity that accepts Black Americans as from here, but
[00:36:46.240]creates another category of alienness for...
[00:36:49.440]they're here, but not really from here.
[00:36:53.340]So that's how I was thinking about it. But I'd
[00:36:55.880]love to hear any other ways of thinking about this.
[00:37:00.680]Yeah, I definitely think it has something to do with the concept of Asians
[00:37:05.560]as forever foreigners, right? Like, no matter
[00:37:07.820]what you do, no matter if you're born in the country, no matter if
[00:37:10.760]you're, you know, you have citizenship, no matter if you perform, you know, the
[00:37:15.460]ideals of Americanness, you're always foreign, right?
[00:37:18.680]So the alien is almost one side of that foreignness, and
[00:37:22.840]then the refugee, to me, is the other side. Like, they're
[00:37:25.400]are two sides of the same coin, essentially.
[00:37:29.080]Which is that you are here, but you are not of
[00:37:31.820]here, right? Which is what you're getting to with those legal constructs.
[00:37:36.740]Okay, so we have a question from Riley, and I'll just read it out here.
[00:37:41.240]So, Dr. Peche, you mentioned in the beginning that you came
[00:37:44.100]from an anthropological background.
[00:37:45.920]To what extent do you believe that the law's past acted as a
[00:37:50.320]culmination of societal hatred towards the various refugee groups
[00:37:54.120]coming into the States?
[00:37:55.740]Or would you argue that these laws shaped the ways
[00:37:58.140]in which American society acted towards and treated these refugee groups?
[00:38:04.600]In terms of sort of an anthropological perspective, I think
[00:38:08.580]it's really important to note that the late 19th century is
[00:38:12.020]when anthropologists were really getting at the pseudoscientific descriptions of
[00:38:19.860]how different, how race sort of determined different
[00:38:26.140]characteristics and attributes.
[00:38:28.020]And these, I think you mentioned something in the last lecture
[00:38:32.500]about common knowledge, and this was actually brought up in court, right?
[00:38:37.720]This normative common knowledge that we were all just supposed
[00:38:41.560]to assume, right? Well, what was this? This was really
[00:38:46.040]seeping in to the courtroom, this idea that there was
[00:38:51.260]a very specific set of attributes and that race was really
[00:38:56.100]a determining factor of the kind of, you know, person that
[00:39:02.240]you are. And so these ideas, these racial ideas make it
[00:39:07.960]into the courtrooms as common knowledge, but really we're looking at
[00:39:12.320]the development of an American nation that is a white male heteronormative.
[00:39:17.960]And that everybody is supposed, that is the ordinary American. And
[00:39:22.240]so when I mentioned the laws in the 19th, 20th century
[00:39:29.660]policing sexuality and stuff, it was under the rubric of vagrancy,
[00:39:37.160]but really it was about like this, a moral police, right?
[00:39:41.280]To police sexual transgressions, specifically targeting
[00:39:44.700]Asian laborers and Mexican laborers and the
[00:39:48.580]sphere of miscegenation, but really it's really about defining
[00:39:53.000]what ordinary American means.
[00:39:56.480]So I hope I answered that. I also saw something in the chat
[00:40:03.760]that I thought was interesting.
[00:40:07.620]Emira says that if you want to come to the U.S.
[00:40:09.720]as a refugee, you have to be healthy. You have to
[00:40:12.120]go through a whole slew of health exams. And this also
[00:40:16.380]is a really interesting way in which to police the American nation.
[00:40:19.880]So we're, you know, in terms of being afraid
[00:40:22.680]of miscegenation, the degradation of the nuclear family, right?
[00:40:29.420]We're also fearful of being a healthy populace and
[00:40:35.020]the assumption that somehow those coming in are not, right?
[00:40:41.660]That they're taking over and making us unhealthy. And that
[00:40:46.920]continues today in policy.
[00:40:49.700]I also would love to chime in and just plug Nayan Shah's
[00:40:53.900]"Contagious Divides" in talking about that. I know Dr. Jones is giving me
[00:40:58.340]a thumbs up there, but it's actually thinking about
[00:41:00.620]how Asian migration from the Pacific through San Francisco actually
[00:41:05.060]creates the U.S. modern medical state, right?
[00:41:08.180]Because it's this idea that we have to create a regulated system
[00:41:13.120]of evaluation of health for immigrants. And so it's about this kind of
[00:41:18.580]weird period where they were trying to figure out how to do so
[00:41:21.540]because there is a fear that Chinese migrant laborers
[00:41:24.920]were bringing in disease.
[00:41:27.160]And gosh, there's so much to do with that. And
[00:41:29.360]definitely eugenics too, Anne. Emira, go ahead, jump in, please.
[00:41:36.940]I wasn't sure if I was able to, like, speak a question
[00:41:40.160]or if I had to type it. So I apologize. I was
[00:41:43.700]recently, something you were talking about,
[00:41:45.860]Dr. Peche, you said something about how they didn't want, you know,
[00:41:51.900]any homosexuals or any of that stuff.
[00:41:53.680]And I was thinking about how a lot of these health screening
[00:41:57.180]exams also require refugees to have an HIV exam, for example. So
[00:42:03.500]how much of that is also tied to, you know, what types
[00:42:07.660]of refugees are coming in as well, what is their sexuality, right?
[00:42:11.320]So there's like a slew of different things. But so there's
[00:42:15.160]that part of it as well. But then the other thing I
[00:42:17.200]was thinking about, I was doing one of my research project recently,
[00:42:20.840]I was looking at refugee resettlement in Nebraska, specifically
[00:42:24.540]starting in 1975.
[00:42:27.720]And one of the things that we found was that
[00:42:30.120]the first Vietnamese refugees that came to
[00:42:32.000]Nebraska were actually Vietnamese doctors that they recruited
[00:42:35.320]out of Camp Pendleton.
[00:42:36.560]Oh my god.
[00:42:39.240]Yeah. And, and it was all like, yes, information.
[00:42:44.040]It was really interesting because, and it was because there was such
[00:42:50.180]a desperate need in the state for rural, like the rural state of
[00:42:54.320]Nebraska had no doctors, there was no healthcare professionals
[00:42:57.360]and there was, and as you were saying there was,
[00:42:59.420]you know, 130,000 refugees, they're mostly educated.
[00:43:02.780]They speak English, they speak French. And so what
[00:43:06.220]the state did, the unicameral gave them $50,000 to three
[00:43:10.300]senators from the state of Nebraska to go to
[00:43:12.520]Camp Pendleton and recruit 28 doctors to come to Nebraska.
[00:43:17.360]They went to University of Nebraska Medical Center, got trained and got
[00:43:21.640]spread across the state of Nebraska and most of them ended up staying.
[00:43:26.060]And that kind of, so this was done in 1975 and it's just
[00:43:29.580]really interesting because we find ourselves in kind of
[00:43:32.460]the same situation today, Nebraska is still facing the
[00:43:36.400]same kind of healthcare shortage.
[00:43:38.720]Yet we're not doing the same kind of a thing, right? Like we're
[00:43:41.120]not putting in the same kind of resources to fund, like I was talking
[00:43:45.980]to a colleague of mine who works in refugee resettlement and she said, you
[00:43:49.440]know, I have a doctor from Afghanistan who works in a meat packing factory.
[00:43:53.860]We're not willing to put in the same kind of
[00:43:56.460]resources to sort of just up-skill people when it comes, you
[00:44:02.200]know, to just up-skill people, just to give them, mostly
[00:44:06.360]it's just to give them English lessons, most of the time.
[00:44:09.060]That's really all it is. And let them pass a couple
[00:44:11.920]of exams. These people have decades of experience in the field.
[00:44:15.380]But we're not willing to do that today, but we were willing to do it in 1975.
[00:44:19.780]So it's just a really interesting contrast of where
[00:44:21.980]we find ourselves and where we were in 1975.
[00:44:25.080]Right. And it makes me think of sort of the building of why,
[00:44:36.040]who is a worthy, right?
[00:44:38.420]Yes, exactly.
[00:44:39.540]You can contribute productively to the needs of this country
[00:44:43.580]in some way, but you have to make that case.
[00:44:47.700]Right.
[00:44:47.840]And there are very specific ways in which that's
[00:44:53.640]done, like you said, by recruiting
[00:44:55.300]specifically medical doctors.
[00:44:57.720]But also, generally, there's this interesting expectation of a particular
[00:45:04.080]kind of immigrant narrative that will allow you to get asylum.
[00:45:07.560]So there are, so the work on Latin American immigrants seeking
[00:45:15.360]asylum and the ways in which they, and I'm thinking back to
[00:45:21.600]Rigoberta Menchú and these others, so that had to really perfect the
[00:45:27.900]particular expected victim narrative that American
[00:45:32.420]audiences are willing to grant asylum.
[00:45:37.520]Right. So perfecting what is expected of a particular passive victim.
[00:45:46.120]Yeah. And it was just really interesting to sort
[00:45:49.760]of find that historical context and then sort of complete and
[00:45:54.760]other sort of opposition to it today.
[00:45:58.980]Yeah. Thank you. It was a wonderful presentation. I
[00:46:02.840]really appreciated that.
[00:46:04.360]Thank you.
[00:46:05.400]And I'm going to have to, I know there are questions in the chat. I'm
[00:46:09.220]going to turn it over.
[00:46:11.620]Dr. Jones, do you think we have time for one more question?
[00:46:14.260]I would, can we do Serenity and Veronica? We can go a
[00:46:17.900]little bit over. It's not, sometimes we go to 10:30, we're fine.
[00:46:22.020]Okay.
[00:46:22.340]As long as Linda doesn't have a... Dr. Ho Peche, do you have,
[00:46:25.060]okay, let's go ahead. Let's let it cook because
[00:46:27.700]students are dropping questions.
[00:46:30.360]Okay. So Serenity, you had a question/comment. Do you have
[00:46:34.040]a question that you want to go along with your comment, which says
[00:46:36.800]this also plays into the bit of why a lot of Asian immigrants
[00:46:39.500]give their children white or American names so that they fit in more.
[00:46:43.620]Additionally, a lot of Asian immigrants encourage
[00:46:45.380]their children not to speak native languages of
[00:46:48.100]their parents as not to receive backlash. I
[00:46:50.360]know that's absolutely the case for my family.
[00:46:54.320]I was actually going to comment more on a personal experience as
[00:46:57.540]well. So my grandma and my dad were both born in the Philippines
[00:47:01.380]and my grandma got remarried to an American man.
[00:47:05.280]And when she came over here, she changed my dad's name. And then
[00:47:08.340]also he was not allowed to speak his native languages at all, sorry.
[00:47:12.840]And he's Filipino. So I guess more so Filipinos don't receive the same
[00:47:18.020]amount of backlash as other communities do, like Vietnamese
[00:47:21.100]communities and Chinese communities.
[00:47:22.620]But we do oftentimes get a lot of different types of racial
[00:47:28.200]profiling, especially if you have a Hispanic last name
[00:47:31.560]being Asian. So I just wanted to kind of add that. So thank you.
[00:47:38.080]Yeah, thank you so much. It's absolutely true. And the case of
[00:47:42.320]Filipino representation is interesting as well
[00:47:44.920]because it has changed over time.
[00:47:47.200]If you look at 19th century illustrations and
[00:47:50.320]newspapers and representations of the uncivilized kind of barbaric
[00:47:54.860]worker, when we needed them, they were very
[00:47:58.380]positive representations in the fields in early 20th century.
[00:48:03.840]And then when they are no longer needed, they're seen as lazy
[00:48:07.800]compared to Mexican workers.
[00:48:12.100]And so, you know, and then we have the nursing shortage and
[00:48:15.620]the recruitment of a particular kind of industry
[00:48:18.480]from the Philippines and it's interesting how perceptions
[00:48:22.320]change over time as well.
[00:48:24.840]And yeah, I'd like to add my father came as a refugee
[00:48:29.040]from that first wave and met my mom, a Mexican immigrant in L.A.
[00:48:35.460]And I was given the name Linda because of Linda Ronstadt
[00:48:41.040]that my dad really liked. And so, yeah, we get into immigrant
[00:48:46.300]sort of strategies for cultural belonging and naming.
[00:48:54.220]Yeah, it's very interesting, especially, I mean, it kind of
[00:48:57.180]speaks to the contentions that a lot of refugees, Vietnamese
[00:49:01.240]refugees were feeling when they arrived right in the U.S.
[00:49:04.040]and when they were thinking about establishing a life here.
[00:49:06.580]And so I'm always thinking about that. We have a
[00:49:09.480]question from Veronica that I'll read. So Veronica says, my parents
[00:49:13.300]are refugees and something I noticed in our community is
[00:49:16.100]that there's a sense of separation between certain
[00:49:17.960]types of immigrants.
[00:49:18.880]So do you think in the aspect of our modern society, is there
[00:49:23.280]a sense of separation or hierarchy between immigrants who
[00:49:26.580]came to America through refugee programs and immigrants who
[00:49:29.500]came to America another way?
[00:49:32.740]Absolutely. And I think that gets to the core of
[00:49:35.900]really problematizing these concepts, both as legal definitions, as well
[00:49:43.240]as popular conceptions of refugee and real life resentments at
[00:49:49.980]why certain communities are given more assistance and more help.
[00:49:58.440]And it creates these divisions, both even within the Vietnamese community.
[00:50:04.060]So just remembering it's not a monolith that's
[00:50:05.920]Vietnamese community, but like the different ways in
[00:50:08.300]which you came here even creates divisions of how much assistance
[00:50:14.440]you've been granted and why, right?
[00:50:17.660]And it's, again, a question of worthiness.
[00:50:25.500]Great, thank you. We have another question from Omar.
[00:50:29.140]And it says, if I recall, if any other race that wasn't
[00:50:33.400]white were to move into suburban areas, there was a plan to
[00:50:36.300]move all the families into a new area and then leave the
[00:50:39.360]old barren, old area barren of any support, thus making them ghettos.
[00:50:44.040]This creates stereotypes, of course. And so is that
[00:50:47.080]correct or is there a different engagement with that?
[00:50:52.060]I do know that there was an attempt to, after the first sort of
[00:51:02.320]waves, for lack of a better word, of Vietnamese
[00:51:06.560]refugees, there was an attempt to disseminate refugees so they
[00:51:11.360]didn't quote unquote take over.
[00:51:13.080]So I'm not sure about the specific case of suburban communities, but I do
[00:51:19.420]know that there was a very specific attempt to sort of
[00:51:25.200]spread the communities out.
[00:51:27.720]So you had folks that ended up in the Midwest and they were very
[00:51:31.640]cold, so they came to the South anyway. You had folks
[00:51:34.760]resettled in the Northeast.
[00:51:37.860]So there are small pockets that still live there of
[00:51:41.140]second generation communities, but also if you look at the current
[00:51:44.960]demographics, mostly in California and mostly in Texas.
[00:51:52.060]And those policies and programs were specific to a
[00:51:58.840]response to sort of issues like the Texas fishermen here.
[00:52:02.640]Yeah, I also think the concept of white flight is more
[00:52:07.140]directed towards African American communities and
[00:52:09.880]cities that have large Black populations.
[00:52:12.880]And so that could be maybe what Omar is referencing in that sense.
[00:52:16.860]Yeah, I do know in Houston, for example, the sort of our
[00:52:22.160]Chinatown and Little Saigon Town is actually at the outskirts and that
[00:52:27.660]had more to do with the affordability of housing.
[00:52:36.740]Yeah. Alright, so I'm going to take the last question before
[00:52:39.680]Emily wraps us up. And I'm going to make this a
[00:52:42.360]little bit more hypothetical and students you are more than welcome
[00:52:45.140]to chime in on your responses to this, maybe in the chat.
[00:52:49.240]So what does the refugee crisis look like today? And are there
[00:52:52.740]certain areas or regions of the world that are
[00:52:54.680]experiencing this presently?
[00:52:56.420]And then here's kind of where my hypothetical question
[00:52:58.580]comes in and maybe it's not something we can answer in
[00:53:01.060]the few minutes that we have left.
[00:53:02.680]But can someone from a first world country like the United States would be a refugee?
[00:53:11.460]I'm going to say yes.
[00:53:16.920]Thanks, Omar. Why? And I think I know why, because we talked
[00:53:20.380]about this. Go ahead.
[00:53:21.920]Oh, my gosh, wait, we did. Oh, yeah, wait, let me let me recall. Let me recall.
[00:53:25.660]OK, so in my mind, what I think the refugee could be is like
[00:53:30.020]they're trying to get away from certain political problems or happenings
[00:53:36.260]happening in the country.
[00:53:37.020]So, like, let's say hypothetically, and I'm going to bring
[00:53:40.440]in politics right now, like Project 2025 fucks us all over.
[00:53:44.500]I would be a refugee if I were to go to another country to get
[00:53:49.340]away from all that, because I am a gay Mexican-American from
[00:53:52.520]a family of immigrants.
[00:53:57.710]I think that's a very thank you so much for sharing, Omar.
[00:54:01.590]Yes. I think it brings up a lot of issues in my mind.
[00:54:10.530]In particular, where would you go, right?
[00:54:16.110]So we would have to really think about how the definition
[00:54:19.210]of refugee is going to be negotiated to allow, right, for you.
[00:54:25.810]And the fact that I really like the question, Dr. Anderson,
[00:54:31.570]of thinking about, OK, well, can first world peoples go elsewhere?
[00:54:35.410]Because it was really it was the term refugee
[00:54:39.270]from the core word refuge was really developed at a
[00:54:45.090]time where we're thinking about cementing of geographical borders, but
[00:54:49.210]this idea of the West having to be the savior.
[00:54:52.130]Right. So it's like this more amorphous idea of where you're
[00:54:58.310]going to provide refuge.
[00:55:00.310]But during this time, we're talking about Omar, your
[00:55:04.890]experiences that you brought up, also thinking about climate issues
[00:55:10.110]and climate refugees that we're going to be facing very
[00:55:13.470]soon now, if not within the next 25, 30 years.
[00:55:17.590]And so our definitions are going to probably have to keep
[00:55:22.870]up and keep developing in different ways in order for us
[00:55:26.770]to keep that concept and keep the ability to think about
[00:55:32.690]different kinds of human rights, justifications for the
[00:55:38.370]movement of peoples.
[00:55:41.210]But yeah, that's a great question.
[00:55:44.070]And perhaps one that we will just let linger even
[00:55:47.750]after this webinar, because I agree, I don't think there is
[00:55:50.930]an easy answer to that question yet.
[00:55:54.790]But thank you so much for joining me in conversation, Dr. Ho
[00:55:58.090]Peche, and I will turn it over to Emily to wrap us up.
[00:56:03.180]Yes, thank you so much, Dr. Ho Peche, for joining
[00:56:06.020]us today. It's been an honor to have you here.
[00:56:08.680]And we're so grateful for your time and appreciate the way
[00:56:11.020]that your projects are laying the foundation for
[00:56:13.400]the questions that we're asking at the U.S. Law and Race Initiative.
[00:56:17.120]I'd also like to thank our audience for watching and sending in all of
[00:56:20.080]these great questions and the U.S. Law and Race team for all of your support.
[00:56:24.580]You can learn more about the U.S. Law and Race Initiative at
[00:56:27.500]uslawandrace.unl.edu. Additional information about
[00:56:33.280]our events series, as well as videos of our past events are
[00:56:36.500]posted at events.unl.edu/uslawandrace.
[00:56:40.380]Thank you, everybody.

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Asian Americans Confront U.S. Law & Policy: A Case Study of the Vietnamese Impact on Defining the "Refugee"

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